Seljuk Rule in Jerusalem
Seljuk Rule in Jerusalem (1071–1099 CE)
At the beginning of the 11th century, the Seljuks emerged on the stage of history, becoming a major power after establishing their state in the region of Khurāsān in 1040. With their ambitious policy of expansion, the Seljuks quickly brought vast territories under their control, including Iran, ʿIrāq, Syria, and Anatolia. The year 1071 holds particular importance—both as a turning point in Seljuk history and in the broader history of the Turkic-Islamic world—as it marked the opening of a new chapter.
On 26 August 1071, the Battle of Manzikert, which ended with a decisive Seljuk victory, paved the way for a series of far-reaching transformations that would alter the religious, intellectual, and social fabric of the Mediterranean world. This military and political triumph, achieved under the leadership of the young Sultan Alp Arslān, opened the gates of Anatolia to the Turks. The victory at Manzikert holds a place of great importance comparable to that of the Battle of Yarmūk, as it set the stage for the road to Jerusalem. With the weakening of Byzantine power and loss of authority in Anatolia, Christianity declined noticeably in the region, while Islam emerged as the dominant force.
In the same year, while Turkish conquests in Anatolia continued, the Seljuks were also advancing into Syria and Palestine, settling in these lands. This step by the Seljuks marked a major setback for the Fāṭimid Caliphate’s long-standing plans to dominate the Islamic world.
The Fāṭimids had already been weakened by internal uprisings, the interference of powerful viziers in the caliphal authority, and the severe droughts and famines that had plagued Egypt since the 1060s. These factors greatly eroded their unity and authority, especially in Syria and Palestine, creating favorable conditions for the Seljuk conquest of Jerusalem. Pursuing their campaign westward in the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuks began a series of conquests in the lands of Syria and Palestine.
Ultimately, the Nāvakiya Turkmens under the leadership of Seljuk amīr Qurulū Bey arrived in Palestine and settled in Ramla, approximately 50 kilometers from Jerusalem (1069/1070). Following the death of Qurulū Bey, command passed to Amīr Atsız, who launched a campaign to complete the conquest of Palestine and laid siege to Jerusalem, a city of immense historical and religious significance.
Atsız, following the precedent set by ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (RA), entered the city without bloodshed, granting the inhabitants a covenant of safety (amān) guaranteeing the protection of their lives and property. True to his word, he pardoned the Turkish governor of the city, who was loyal to the Fāṭimids, and granted him an iqṭāʿ (fief), thus raising the banner of Seljuk justice and security over Jerusalem. Following the conquest, the khuṭbah (Friday sermon) was delivered in the name of the ʿAbbāsid Caliph and Sultan Alp Arslān, marking the beginning of Seljuk rule in Jerusalem, which would last for over a quarter of a century.
Modern scholarship on this period has often approached Seljuk rule in Jerusalem mainly through a political lens. However, some historians—without carefully considering the primary sources—have produced biased accounts that reflect their own interpretations rather than historical reality. Such authors have, in some cases, unjustly portrayed the Seljuk period as one of Jerusalem’s darkest eras, conflating the devastations of the Crusader period with the Turkish-Islamic administration of the city.
The policies and actions of Amīr Atsız, from the moment of Jerusalem’s conquest, provide the clearest refutation of these claims. Atsız publicly announced, through town criers, that no looting would take place and that the lives and properties of the inhabitants would be protected. True to his pledge, no harm came to anyone or anything within the city. He appointed guards to ensure the protection of the people and their property, taking every precaution to maintain public order and security.
When Atsız returned from his unsuccessful campaign against Cairo in 1076–1077 (469 AH), he faced a revolt by the Arab military and administrative officials of Jerusalem. The rebels began having the khuṭbah recited in the name of the Shīʿī Fāṭimid caliph and mistreated Atsız’s deputies, family, and retainers in the city. Upon reentering Jerusalem and seeing this act of rebellion and defiance, Atsız punished the insurgents, ordering the execution of those involved in the uprising. Those who sought refuge in the Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Ṣakhrah) were spared after paying ransom in money and property. The famous historian Ibn al-Athīr relates this event as the moment when Atsız regained full control of Jerusalem and restored order and peace.
The Seljuks, as a ruling dynasty, were never driven by fanaticism nor by the intoxication of power. Indeed, after the death of Atsız in 471 AH / 1079 CE, Tāj al-Dawla Tutush, the brother of Sultan Malik-Shāh and ruler of Syria and Palestine, entered Damascus and was known for treating its inhabitants with great kindness and for ruling with justice.